Preface
The jade-colored celadons of the Goryeo Kingdom were a brilliant “blossom” that arose from Goryeo's Buddhist culture.
The shapes, patterns, and firing techniques of Goryeo celadon ware were directly influenced by the Yue ware of Zhejiang, but at the same time there were also many cross-influences with the wares of various kilns in northern and southern China, such as Yue, Ru, Cizhou, Longquan, Ding, Jingdezhen, Yaozhou, and so on,1 which brought in new “nutrients” that allowed it take root and flourish. By the 12th century, Goryeo artisans could produce beautiful “secret color” celadon that was praised as “first under heaven.”2 Goryeo celadon was an extension of Song celadon, and also had its unique, innovative qualities.

Below I shall focus on Yue, Longquan, Ru, Cizhou, and Guan ware and explore their deep relationship with Goryeo celadon.
1. Theories Concerning the Emergence of Korean Celadons
Korean scholars differ in their views on the emergence of celadon in Korea, but among them the arguments of Cheng Yang-mo are more generally accepted.

Cheng Yang-mo says3 that based on prolonged surveys of kiln sites one learns that Goryeo celadon during the 9th and 10th centuries remained in its beginning stage of development. “Green celadon” fired on support pins made of fire-resistant granules or mud cakes was characteristic of this period, and both the inner and outer bowl surfaces retain traces of having been fired on pins or in stacks. In the 11th century, the clay becomes gradually finer, and the degree of fusion between the glaze and clay body improves from before, so that the glaze does not easily flake off. However, the shapes of the vessels of this period retain those of China's Five Dynasties and Northern Song periods. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries, the celadons fired in Gangjin, Jeollabuk province (in the southwestern part of Korea) show thinner walls, and there tends to be greater diversity in vessel varieties and shapes. The glaze is beautiful, translucent, and halcyon-like, like that of Yue ware, but glaze thicknesses from 0.3 mm to 0.6 mm begin to appear only in the early to mid-12th century. Because the Goryeo celadon glaze is translucent, linear incised patterns below the glaze layer become indistinct. This sort of linear incised patterning is a technique done in imitation of the Yaozhou ware of Shaanxi. Generally, with the Southern Song Guan ware with the thick, opaque “jadelike” glaze layer, the glaze was applied over the whole object, without ornamentation, and when firing the technique of placing the vessels on pins or circular supports was used, which left pin-shaped or circular marks on the bases. Precedents for such firing techniques may be found in early Chinese Yue, Yaozhou, Ding, Cizhou, and Linru ware.
Archaeological statistics on bowls with Yue ware-style yubizu (annular feet with slightly recessed centers surrounded by thick ring “walls”) that were found at mid-9th century kiln sites indicate that they had been concentrated in Jeollabuk province and its vicinity. The Gangjin kilns were in operation from around the 9th to 14th centuries, and beginning from the 10th century the yubizu gradually evolved into zhaijuanzu (thin circular feet, the kind seen in most modern porcelain utensils). Characteristic of the early Yue-style yubizu are sloping walls, wide annuli with large surface areas, thin glaze presenting a dark green color, and mudspeck scars on the underside of the feet, similar to what is seen in Yue ware.
2. The Influence of Yue ware on Goryeo Celadon
(1) Yue kiln tools and kiln types
At the site of the Daegu-myeon kiln in Gangjin saggars with a distinctive “M” shape was used;4 this is identical to
the kind used in the kilns in the Shangyu, Zhejiang region. This distinctive M-shaped saggar, with signs or holes,5 has been found to have been used at over 230 kiln sites within the boundaries of Shanglinhu, Zhejiang, but in Goryeo, apart from Daegu-myeon, Gangjin, all the other kilns generally used cylindrical saggars.
As for kiln type, “dragon kilns” (also known as “snake kilns”) were most plentiful, and usually a layer of sand was spread on the kiln floor. Wood was the primary fuel.
(2) Characteristics of Yue celadon
Yue ware was the first in the history of Chinese porcelain to have formed a “lineage,” and it lasted for as long as 2,000 years (and if “primitive celadon” is included, it would be more than 3,000 years). In general, the characteristics of Yue celadon are: a white or grayish-white clay body; a hard, fine texture; use of Fe2O3 as the main coloring agent; a glaze that presents a green color. In the Northern Song and afterward, as the Yue glaze layer became more transparent, various ornamentation methods such as incision, paddling, painting, piling, and openwork carving became popular. Utensil forms like bowls, plates, bottles, pots, containers, and pillows for daily use formed the bulk, and forms such as the “melon shape,” the “floral-shaped mouth,” and “objects in the form of a gold or silver ingot” enjoyed considerable circulation. The diversification of vase shapes6 in itself formed a new style.7 With the parrot pattern for example, at the Gangjin kiln site a bowl with parrot patterns and a “parrot's head” form was excavated8 that was similar to one found at Shanglinhu. However, the Shangyu object was round, and the forward-facing parrot patterns were different. That is, wings and tail on the Gangjin parrot pattern were very long.
(3) Ornamentation on Goryeo celadon
These include lotus patterns, entangled branch patterns, floral arabesque patterns, wave patterns, peony patterns, chrysanthemum patterns, floral roundel patterns, phoenix patterns, butterfly patterns, fish patterns, dragon patterns, parrot patterns, and so on—the kinds often appearing in Song ceramics. From this may be seen the influence that Song ware, especially Yue ware, had on Goryeo celadon.
Below I shall describe the influence of Yue ware on Goryeo celadon using the “vase” as example.
3. Comparison of Vessel Shapes of Goryeo Celadon and Song Porcelain
(1) The influence of Yue ware
a. Celadon octagonal long-necked vase, Goryeo, height 34.3 cm (Plate 1-1); Museum of Oriental Ceramics, Osaka.
The clay body of the vessel is thin and white, and the shape combines an octagonal long neck with an oval-shaped body. Around the mouth there is a ring of meander pattern and a small ring-shaped ear. Where the long octagonal neck joins with the shoulder, there is a ring of line-incised lotus petal patterns, and on the shoulder there is a ruyi pattern. Inside each of the eight facets on the melon-shaped body of the vase is applied a lotus petal and plucked branch pattern, and at the lower extremity of the vase there is a lotus petal pattern. The glaze on the bottom of the round foot was wiped away, but the glaze is spread over the other parts. The entire surface of the plum-green glaze is crackled. Because the primary flux in the glaze layer of this object is calcium oxide, the glaze layer is thin, with a glasslike transparency and beautiful color. The round foot of the vessel is large and well-formed, and inside the circle of the foot is five grain-like marks from the fire-resistant silica support pins. It was fired around the peak period of Goryeo celadons: the 12th century. This pure water vase would be placed on the altar during Buddhist rituals.

This vase is similar to the Yue octagonal long-necked vase discovered in the underground palace of the Famen Temple; the vessel shape is original to Yue ware.
b. Octagonal pure water vase of Famen Temple, late Tang, height 21.5 cm, mouth diameter 2.2 cm (Plate 1-1a); Famen Temple Museum.9
The clay body of the vessel is grayish-green, and the thin glaze presents a blue-green color with a fine degree of glassification. As for its shape, the vessel has a small, straight mouth, a long neck, and a shallow round foot; the eight facets extend from the mouth to the neck. Where neck meets shoulder are three protruding lines resembling steps. On the broad shoulder, melon-shaped body, and sharply rising octagonal faces there are ornamental patterns. On the base is preserved the evenly spaced marks from the silica support pins. According to the inscription on the stele excavated from the underground palace of the Famen Temple in 1987, we learn that this vase was a “benevolent donation” object of Emperor Xizong (r. 874-888).
This vessel resembles the Goryeo octagonal vase, but it has a shorter neck, and the silica support pins used in firing were set against the bottom of the round foot. The Goryeo vase is larger, the octagonal neck longer than that of the Famen Temple vase, and the support pins had been set inside the circular foot during firing. The firing techniques used for these two vases thus differed slightly: the five support pins on the Goryeo vase were set inside the round foot, but the support pins of the Famen Temple vase were set right on the round foot. In the collection of the Beijing Palace Museum10 there is an octagonal Yue celadon vase of similar dimensions and very similar shape compared with the Famen Temple vase. There is another “octagonal pure water vase” excavated at the site of the Shanglinhu kiln in Cixi, Zhejiang (Plate 1-1b). Its mouth rim is broken, but the shape is fully identical to the Famen Temple vase. Hence both of those vases were made at the Shanglinhu kiln.11 Moreover, in 1954, Mr. Chen Wanli excavated an “octagonal vase” artifact that had been shaped on a wheel (Plate 1-1c); this too matches the octagonal vase of the Famen Temple.
At the end of the Northern Song, when the Jurchens took over northern China, many of the kilns in the north were destroyed, and afterward the northern ceramics industry fell into a dark period. In early times, Korean porcelain manufacturing techniques had been influenced by the pieces of Chinese Ding, Cizhou, Ru, Yaozhou, and other ware that had arrived via the “land route.” During the Goryeo era, the political, social, and economic influences from the Southern Song came to Korea via the “sea route” more than the “land route.” Therefore, southern Chinese objects and firing techniques flooded into Gangjin, on Korea's west coast,12 and among these the Yue techniques were especially plentiful. From this time the Goryeo ceramists were able to use the “reducing flame” that had been used to produce Yue ware, and so could produce beautifully colored celadons. The glory days of Goryeo celadon in the 12th century are represented by a batch of the “first under heaven” “secret color” celadons that were unearthed at “Long Mound,” the tomb of King Injong of Goryeo (r. 1123-1146).13
(2) The influence of Ru ware on Goryeo celadon
The development of Ru ware was influenced by Yue “secret color” and Yaozhou light green celadon, and it was intimately related to the opaque blue glaze of the Jun ware of Ruzhou. The kind of support pins that had been used to fire the early Goryeo celadons, and that had been adopted from the clay pieces and serrated supports used in Yue ware, left marks that somewhat affected the visual appeal of the finished object. Later on, the Goryeo artisans adopted the kind of triangular supports used to bake Yaozhou ware, and continued to use these until the late 11th century, when they learned the method of support pins. After this, most vessels they produced have three or five support pin marks. One seldom sees six support pin marks. As for glaze color, artifacts unearthed in recent years at Qingliang Temple in Ruzhou, Henan and at the Ru kiln site at Zhanggongxiang, Ruzhou prove the existence of a close connection between the glaze color of Ru ware and Goryeo celadon. Moreover, the shapes of Goryeo celadon ware from the late 11th century and after are quite similar to those of Ru ware. Objects such as deep bowls, square stands, and cups with floriate mouths are in imitation of Ru ware, so that one may say that Goryeo celadon's development was influenced by Ru ware.
Below I shall use the “baluster vase with flared mouth” as an example to explore the relationship between Goryeo celadon and Ru ware.
(a) Celadon baluster vase with flared mouth, Goryeo (late 11th century), height 14.3 cm, diameter 6.7 cm (Plate 2-1); National Museum of Korea.

This baluster vase with flared mouth is very similar to the celadon mallet vase form, but the greatest difference between the two lies in the mouth rim: this has a flared mouth, while the other has a straight mouth. This object has a thick clay body, a round flared mouth, a long neck, a bent shoulder and sloping walls; the body of the cylindrical cm, diameter 13.5 cm (Plate 2-2); Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology.
This vessel has an ash-grey clay body. It has a flat, flared mouth, long neck, bent shoulder, and a broad, flat bottom. The top portion of its cylindrical main body is broad and the bottom narrow. On the base there are five marks from the support pins. The glaze, which covers the entire vessel, is glossy and presents a sky-blue color. The form is elegant and the workmanship clear and neat.
Vases similar to this have been excavated at kiln sites in recent years, to wit, in the kiln sites at Zhanggong Alley, Ruzhou and Laohudong, Hangzhou.16 I have also personally viewed these objects at the seminar on archeological findings during the “Annual Conference on Chinese Antique Ceramics” in Ruzhou.
(c) Celadon mallet vase, Northern Song (second half of 11th to early 12th centuries), height 20.5 cm, mouth diameter 4 cm (Plate 2-3); National Palace Museum, Taipei.17

This vessel has a thick clay body, and the rim at the mouth is uneven (as if it had been rimmed with metal). The small mouth is slightly flared at an angle. It has a long neck and sloping shoulders. Inside the round foot of the base are five support pin marks and a poetic inscription of the Qianlong emperor. The crackled glaze, which covers the entire object, presents a sky-blue color. The body and overall impression of this vessel, apart from the mouth portion, is similar to that of the baluster vases described above: all the vessels exude an air of elegance and majesty. Elsewhere in the collection of the National Palace Museum, Taipei, which has the world's largest collection of Ru ware, there is a Ru mallet vase similar to this one that does have a metal rim around the mouth.
The form of the mallet originated in the Middle East and Egypt. Glass mallet vases were popular in the Middle East, particularly Iran and Egypt, during the 9th-10th centuries. They may have been used to store oil or wine, but others think that they were used to store perfume or rose-water.18 Chinese mallet vases first appeared among 12th century Ruzhou and Southern Song Guan wares, and soon they appeared at other kilns. During the Song and Yuan eras, baluster vases with flared mouths and mallet vases were very popular in both celadon and white porcelain.
Most of the smaller Goryeo celadons and Ding ware that were influenced by Ru ware were used for tea-drinking. In the 32nd fascicle of his Xuanhe feng shi Gaoli tu jing (Illustrated Record of the Xuanhe Mission to Goryeo), Xu Ke (1091-1153) records:19
The locally produced tea is bitter and unpalatable. Only the ‘wax tea’ of China is valued…Merchants also sell…teaware, black cups with golden flowers, small halcyon-colored bowls, silver incense-burners, three-legged soup tureens…
Xu Ke also writes: “The flower vases and water goblets are all illicit copies of Ding ware, so I shall omit them without illustration.” Also, “…[The figure of the] squatting beast was supported from below by a lotus blossom. of all the vessels only this was exceptional. The remainder were generally similar to the antique ‘secret color’ ware of Yaozhou and the wares of the new Ruzhou kilns.” When Xu Ke spoke of “the wares of the new Ruzhou kilns,” he may have been referring to objects such as the “octagonal long-necked Goryeo celadon vase” and “Goryeo celadon mallet vase” described above, the “Goryeo celadon floriate cup stand” , the “floriate mouthed Goryeo celadon bowl” , and the “Goryeo celadon incense-burner in the form of a lotus with a fish-dragon lid” . These are not only beautifully formed but also baked with the reducing flame technique.

3. The Influence of Cizhou ware on Goryeo Celadon
a. Celadon prunus vase with iron-painted entangled branch and peony patterns, Goryeo (11th century), height 32.3 cm, diameter 6.8 cm (Plate 3-1); National Museum of Korea.
The clay body of the vessel is thick and red; it has a short neck, a small flared mouth, a sloping shoulder tapering below, and a flat base. On the shoulder and around the base are painted the symbolic lotus-petal pattern, and on the body of the vase are fluid entangled branch and peony patterns. Except for the unglazed base, the whole vessel is glazed; the glaze presents a light green color. The vessel shape as a whole is elongated.
Iron-painted Goryeo celadons existed already in the 10th century but greatly increased in quantity during the 11th century. It was still being produced in the 13th century. Most scholars are of the opinion that iron-painted Goryeo celadon originated with iron-painted Cizhou ware, but others believe that they were influenced by Xicun ware from Guangdong.20 Still others argue that Joseon (Cheson) powdery-textured iron-painted celadon was “discovered naturally” through the influence of Goryeo iron-painted celadon,21 and that it had not been influenced by the iron-painted ware of Cizhou. However, judging from the history of Goryeo celadon's development, I think that the iron-painted images on Goryeo celadons were produced under the influence of Song Cizhou ware. On this basis one can say that Goryeo iron-painted porcelain belongs to the “lineage of Cizhou ware.”
Among the products of kilns in Liaodong, Jilin, Inner Mongolia, and other northern regions, we discover further that the firing techniques were influenced by Cizhou among works with a layer of slip applied over the clay body and painted with black decorations.22 The techniques of the Cizhou lineage were also passed into the borders of the Goryeo kingdom south of the Yalu River. The “painted Goryeo” ware fired in Goryeo during the 12th century resembled Cizhou ware, and after it arrived on Japan's shores it too enjoyed a surge of popularity, with the Japanese calling it egaratsu. The shadow cast by Song Cizhou ware appears also among Vietnamese and Thai vessels fired from the 13th to 15th centuries.

During the chaos at the end of the Northern Song (1126), some of the Cizhou artisans moved to Anhui, Zhejiang, Jiangxi, and elsewhere to continue making porcelain. Among these the Cizhou-style works produced in the kilns at Jizhou, Jiangxi23 enjoyed considerable fame.
There are many varieties of Northern Chinese Cizhou iron-painted celadon, which have gained favor with collectors. The construction of the northern Cizhou and Xiuwu kilns differed from their southern counterparts. The southern kilns were wood-fueled, and most were built on the natural inclines of mountain slopes—climbing kilns, dragon kilns, and so on. In the north, where charcoal was produced, most of the kilns were charcoal-burning dome kilns built on flat ground. Clay bodies and glazes that contained minute quantities of iron would undergo chemical reaction in the kiln during firing. In the presence of an oxidizing flame, the glaze would present a slightly yellowish hue, but with a reducing flame it would present a general green color. Therefore, the “slightly yellowish” color borne by the glaze surface of works from the northern Cizhou lineage is characteristic of charcoal-firing.
b. Marbled celadon bowl, Goryeo (first half of 12th century), height 4.8 cm, diameter 9.3 cm (Plate 3-2); National Museum of Korea.
The bowl has an open mouth, deep belly, an arc-shaped vessel wall that quickly tapers in, and a round foot. Apart from the ring of white glaze around the rim, the bowl is made with the “marbled clay body” technique both on the inside and outside, then glazed with celadon.
Korean scholars refer to this kind of marble ware as yeonrimun celadon. When shaping the vessel, the potter selects clay of several different colors—white, grey, black, and so on—which have varying levels of iron, and these are mixed together as the vessel is shaped, whether by hand or on the wheel. This creates marble-like patterns on the interior and exterior walls of the vessel. Later, the celadon glaze is applied and the vessel fired in the kiln.24 The resulting marbled patterns seem entirely natural. Marble ware appears among Chinese Cizhou ware as early as the Tang dynasty, at which time the marble patterns are already more regular than those appearing on Goryeo marble ware. By the Song dynasty China was producing marble ware in rather large quantities. The biggest difference between Goryeo and Cizhou marble ware is that the Cizhou marble ware uses transparent glaze, but Goryeo ware uses celadon glaze.

Conclusion
Goryeo celadon began being produced in the second half of the 9th century (some scholars are of the opinion that it began in the first half of the 10th century).25
In its early period, it developed rapidly under the influence of the numerous wares of northern and southern China (see Map 1): Ding (vessel shape), Yue (saggar firing technique, vessel shape, glaze), Ru (vessel shape, glaze, and support pin firing technique), Longquan (vessel shape, glaze), Cizhou (kiln firing technique, style of painting), Yaozhou (kiln firing technique, underglaze incision patterns), etc. Among these, the cultural stimulus from Yue ware was the greatest, and through the 12th century Goryeo produced celadons that were praised for being “first under heaven,” as well as “secret color” celadons.
So many points of similarity exist between Goryeo celadons and Yue ware. The kilns were separated geographically by an easily navigable body of water, but also: (1) both kilns were managed by government officials and were considered official kilns, as shown by the works’ inscriptions: “For imperial use,” “Palace Medical Service,” “official,” “Imperial Tomb,” and so on. (2) Yubizu bowls first appeared among Yue ware during the Tang dynasty. Many of these Tang yubizu bowls have been excavated in Korea, but in addition, many yubizu bowls have been discovered among the early period celadons produced at the south kiln of Jeollabuk province. The kiln sites expanded later on, so that in addition to Haenam and Gangjin counties they have also been discovered in Chungcheong province, in Yongin, Gyeonggi province, and so on. (3) The makers of both Goryeo and Yue sought to produce “halcyon-colored” celadon and “secret color” celadon. During the heyday of both, these vessels were not ornamented. Later on, when the color was not as beautiful as before, the makers of both began to decorate the glaze surface, and when they did, the kinds of ornamentation and patterns they favored were quite similar. (4) Both kilns were “dragon kilns,” built on hillsides to take advantage of the natural incline, and in both sand was spread on the floors of the kilns. (5) In firing, both kilns used saggars. With regard to the supports used for the vessels in firing, the makers of Goryeo celadon had originally learned the technique of firing with supports on clay pieces from Yue ware, but these left rather unappealing marks. Later on, they adopted the technique of firing their vessels on support pins that had been used in Ru ware. This reduced the size of the marks, and the vessels became more beautiful.

As the fortunes of the Goryeo Kingdom began to decline in the 13th century as a result of various internal struggles and invasions, the court paid virtually no attention to developing culture and the arts. Through Goryeo's multifaceted contacts and interactions with Mongolia, Mongolian-flavored patterns such as ruyi patterns, floral arabesque patterns, entangled branch patterns, and so on gradually emerged among the surface decorations on Goryeo celadons. After this time, the beautifully colored Goryeo celadons did not reappear; what emerged in their stead were “inlay” techniques. But these did not continue for long because of the time and effort demanded. Thus in the 14th century, they began to be replaced by simple “impressed decoration” techniques. After the establishment of the Joseon dynasty in the 15th century, the comparatively coarse Buncheong (Punch'ong, funseiseki) ware became popular for a time. The nature-loving, plain character of the Goryeo people were reflected directly in the vessel shapes and decorations of Goryeo celadons. For instance, a vessel may be shaped in imitation of nature and decorated with plain, realistic painted or incised decorations, or with parts deliberately left blank to achieve an effect like that of a landscape.
In discussing the shapes and patterning methods of celadon ware, this article finds that Goryeo celadon contains the essence of the Song wares and is a kind of “hybridization” of their many kinds.

Notes:
1 Due to space limitations, this article will discuss Goryeo celadons'relationship only with Yue, Ru, and Cizhou ware. I will continue with Longquan, Ding, Jingdezhen, and Yaozhou ware in a future article.
2 Taiping laoren ("Old Man of Taiping"), Xiuzhongjin ("Brocade in a Sleeve"; Southern Song), in Siku quanshu cunmu congshu, Vol. 101 (Tainan: Zhuang Yan wenhua, 1995), p.385. The relevant passage in Xiuzhongjin reads: “Palace-edition books, palace wines, Duan[zhou] inkstones, flowers from Luoyang, brocade from Shu [Sichuan], Ding ware⋯Goryeo 'secret color' ware⋯are all first under heaven. Although other locales imitate them, they never measure up.”
3 Chong Yang-mo, ("Goryeo Celadon Sites and Unearthed Works"), (The Beauty of Korea (IV): Celadon) (Seoul: JoongAng Ilbo, 1989), pp.212-219.
4 (1) Mikami Tsugio, "Korai toji no kigen to sono rekishiteki haikei" ('The Origins of Korean Porcelain and its Historical Background"), Chosen gakuho (Journal of the Academic Association of Koreanology in Japan), 99 (July 1981), pp.225-227; (2) Lin Shimin,“Beiyang hanglu tuozhan yu Chaoxian bandao zhici wenhua de jiaoliu” (“The Expansion of North Sea Navigation Routes and Interaction with Ceramic Culture on the Korean Peninsula”), Zhedong wenhua luncong (Beijing: Zhongyang pianyi chubanshe, 1995), p.190.
5 Before saggars were used, it was necessary to make the base portions of the unbaked utensils thicker, so they could bear pressure. After saggars began to be used in the mid- to late Tang, the base portions of utensils became thinner, and the glaze more even. Baking an object in a saggar improved quality.
6 There is a huge variety in the frequently seen types of vases, e.g., octagonal long-necked vases, vases with bent shoulders and flared mouths, mallet vases, and prunus vases.
7 Zhu Boqian and Xie Mingliang trans., "Yue yao" ("Yue Ware"), Xiongshi meishu (Sept. 1984), p.131.
8 Sung Kee-in, "Chutan Yue yao qingci zai Gaoli Kangjin diqu zhi shenggen yu kaihua" ("Preliminary Exploration of Yue Ware Taking Root and Flourishing in the Gangjin region of Korea”), in Qianfeng cuise—Yue yao tezhan (A Thousand Green Peaks—A Special Exhibition of Yue Ware)(Taipei: Nianxi wenjiao jijinhui, 1996), p.107.
9 Zhongguo kaogu wenwu zhi mei (The Beauty of Chinese Archaeological Artifacts), Vol 10: Fomen mibao da Tang yizhen (The Secret Lost Buddhist Treasures of the Great Tang), 3rd printing (Taipei: Guangfu shuju qiye gufen youxian gongsi, 2002), Plate 81.
10 Wang Qingzheng, Yue yao, mise zi (Yue Ware and Secret Color Porcelain) (Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1996), color plate no.2.
11 Lin Shimin, Qingci yu Yue yao (Celadon and Yue Ware)(Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1999), youxiu de qingci zuopin color plate nos. 68-69.
12 Mikami Tsugio,“Korai toji no kigen to sono rekishiteki haikei,”Chosen gakuho, 99 (July 1981), pp.227-228.
13 Kokuritsu Chuo hakubutsukan (National Museum of Korea), ed. Kokuritsu Chuo hakubutsukan—Nihongo han (National Museum of Korea—Japanese Edition)(Seoul: National Museum of Korea, 1986), pp.127-130, color plates nos. 2-6.
14 National Museum of Korea, ed., Special Exhibition of Renowned Works of Goryeo Celadon (Seoul: National Museum of Korea, 1989), p.213.
15 Ibid., pp.50-51.
16 Hangzhou wenwu kaogusuo (Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archeology), Hangzhou Laohudong yaozhi ciqi jingxuan (Selection of Porcelains from the Kiln Site at Laohudong, Hangzhou) (Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 2002), pp.53-63, plates 28-34.
17 Guoli gugong bowuyuan (National Palace Museum), Daguan bei Song Ru yao tezhan (Grand View: Ju Ware of the Northern Sung dynasty)(Taipei: Guoli gugong bowuyuan, 2007), p.116.
18 Ibid., p.119.
19 Xu Ke, Xuanhe fengshi Gaoli tu jing (Illustrated Record of the Xuanhe Mission to Goryeo), ed. Wang Yunwu (Taipei: Taiwan shangwu yinshuguan, 1971), fasc. 32, entries on utensils.
20 National Museum of Korea, ed., Special Exhibition of Renowned Works of Goryeo Celadon, p.277.
21 Yun Yung-i, "The Transformation of Joseon Porcelain"), Catalog of Noted Works of Joseon Era Porcelain)(Seoul: 992), p.139. Chonghuo-dong in Gwangju is the site of the kiln that produced the famed "iron-painted powdery celadon" of the Joseon era. Yun Yung-i says that the Joseon powdery celadon ware with cutaway and iron-painted ornamentation was developed on the basis of Goryeo celadon ornamentation, and not influenced by Cizhou ware.
22 Feng Xianming et al., Zhongguo taoci shi (History of Chinese Porcelain)(Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1982), p.12.
23 Ibid., pp.250-251.
24 National Museum of Korea, ed., Special Exhibition of Renowned Works of Goryeo Celadon p.277.
25 Ch'oe Sun-u, "Chronology of Goryeo Porcelain", in The Beauty of Korea (IV): Celadon, p.195.