The Influence of Chinese Celadon in Japanese Ceramics
MORI Tatsuya / Chief Curator, Aichi Prefectural Ceramic Museum
Beginning in the 8th century, imports of Chinese ceramic pottery into Japan became more and more frequent, and the nobility, clergy and samurai classes grew very fond of these high-class utensils for daily use. The Chinese pottery coming into Japan included a variety of pottery styles, such as tri-color Tang, celadon, white porcelain, black glaze porcelain, brown glaze porcelain, blue and white porcelain and five-color porcelain. of these styles the most popular were Yue celadon, Longquan celadon and Fujian celadon, so it is no exaggeration to say that celadon was the most loved Chinese ceramic pottery of the Japanese people. Moreover, the large influx of Chinese celadon into Japan had a very strong influence on the production of Japanese ceramic pottery at that time.
This treatise is a simple and systematic attempt to address the appearance of Chinese celadon imported into Japan and its place in the overall influence of Chinese celadon on Japanese ceramic pottery production.
Nara Period (710-794), Heian Period (794-1192)
Unglazed pottery (Jomon Pottery) from around 14,500BC is now considered to be the earliest type of pottery found in Japan. This unglazed pottery (referred to as earthenware in Japan) was baked outdoors in open pits, ditches or bonfires at between 700 and 900 degrees Fahrenheit (kiln rooms were not in use yet and the material was placed directly atop the firewood to conduct the firing). This firing technique was used consistently without any changes for about 15,000 years, starting in the Jomon Period (approx. 14,500BC to 1,000BC), through the Yayoi Period (1,000BC to the middle of the 3rd century), and until the early Kofun Period (3rd century to the latter half of the 4th century).
However, in the 5th century, a potter from the southern part of the Korean Peninsula arrived in Japan and passed on the technique of firing hard, grey pottery at around 1,100 degrees in original Dragon Kilns (called “pit kilns” in Japan), and the ceramic industry was finally launched in Japan. This type of hard pottery technique originated with the hard pottery from south of the Yangzi River in China bearing fine, checkered patterns which was passed on to Japan by way of the Korean Peninsula.
The hard pottery of this period in Japan is known as Sueki. The center of Sueki production was initially in the areas of Southern Osaka and Northern Kyushu, but after a hundred years production had spread throughout the land. There was a high degree of commonality in type and shape between the early Sueki and the hard pottery from the southern Korean Peninsula (known as ceramic earthenware in Korea), but before and after the 7th century, imitations of bell metal-style products (The bronze material was made thinner on a spinning wheel.) that was imported from China and Korea began to increase, and unique types and shapes of Japanese pottery which were distinct from that of the Korean Peninsula became mainstream.
The use of glazing on Japanese ceramics began during the second half of the 7th century. At that time, low temperature lead glaze firing from the Korean Peninsula was employed, and the production of green glaze pottery was started. By the 8th century Nara Period, near the capital city of Heijo-kyo (now Nara), production of imitation Tang tri-colored ceramics began although it was called Nara tri-colored. It has been determined that the Chinese ceramics unearthed in Japan that have been identified as the oldest specimens are North Korean green glaze cups with string-of-pearl patterns from the latter half of the 6th century found in ancient tombs in Iki, Nagasaki Prefecture and at Ishigami Shrine in Nara. Moreover, Tang tri-colored ceramics from the end of the 7th century through the first half of the 8th century were unearthed from temples and tombs in a number of locations. This type of green glaze and tri-colored ceramics from this early period of production using glaze in Japan probably reflects the Chinese ceramic pottery found during this time and is primarily lead-glaze pottery 1.
Nara tri-colored glaze used green, brown and white (translucent) glaze, the production of which came to an end sometime around the end of the 8th century. Brown glaze had basically disappeared by the 9th century during the Heian Period, and green glaze pottery production had become mainstream. In the 9th century, production moved to the three areas of Yamaguchi, Kyoto and its surrounding areas and northern Aichi (including southeastern Gifu), and the Sanage Kilns in Aichi becoming the production center for green glaze pottery was a significant development. At the time that the Sanage Kilns were about to begin production of green glaze pottery using lead glaze, production of grey ash glaze mainly using natural plant ash coating was begun, and the firing of ash grey glaze pottery was conducted at high temperatures of around 1,200 degrees Fahrenheit. This was referred to as pottery in Japan even though the firing temperature and glazing conditions were so similar to original Chinese celadon. Therefore, if this similarity to Chinese pottery is given consideration, the ash glaze pottery from the Sanage Kilns can also be seen as the origin of Japanese ceramic pottery2.
It can clearly be determined that in type and shape the production of green glaze pottery at the Sanage Kilns in the 9th and 10th Centuries was influenced by Yue celadon. Innumerable imitation Yue celadon were produced, such as jade bottom bowls, supports, incense burners, boxes, spittoons, engraved bowls (Charts 1 & 2), pots with single handles, pots with double handles and lids, four-footed pots and other sorts of ceramic products. Ash glaze ceramics included jade-bottomed bowls, pots with single handles (Charts 3 & 4), four-footed pots and many imitation Yue celadon products.
The porcelain items from many different places imported into Japan in the 9th and 10th centuries included Yue celadon, Xing Kiln white porcelain, Changsha ware, Gongyi Kiln white porcelain, Late Tang tri-colored ceramicd and crude celadon from the Haui-an ware in Fujian. Dazaifu and Hakata (in northern Kyushu) were established as organs for foreign relations at this time in Japan with the capital Kyoto (the Heian capital) as the center. Unearthed examples of pottery could be found at the temples and government office sites all over the country. The majority of these Chinese pottery items were Yue celadon, and its influence on Japanese ceramic pottery was quite evident.
The imitation Yue ware green glaze and ash glaze pottery produced at the Sanage Kilns was the highest quality ceramic pottery in all of Japan at this time. It is surmised that these ceramic items were first offered in tribute to the central government, and then assigned as official articles for daily use to government offices and temples across the country.
Production of Sanage Kiln green glaze pottery came more or less to an end in the 11th century, and in the 12thcentury production of ash glaze pottery became dominant, much of which were imitations of the Fujian white porcelain bowls, celadon bowls and plates and other items in this style that frequently entered Japan. The Fujian comb mesh pattern celadon entering Japan in the latter half of the 12th century was known as “pearl celadon” because it was prized by tea master Murata Shuko during the Muromachi Period.
From the Kamakura Period to the Momoyama Period
The Seto Kilns of Seto in Aichi Prefecture inherited the Sanage Kiln ash glaze technique in the 12th century. Later on, in the Kamakura Period (1192-1333), the Muromachi Period (1336-1573) and the Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1336-1573), the thriving and prosperous Seto Kilns continued to be Japan's best pottery manufacturer.
The Seto wares produced imitation products of celadon of the Longquan wares, celadon and white porcelain of the Jingdezhen, celadon, white porcelain and glazed porcelain of the Fujian Kilns, small Jian cups (Jian Kiln black glaze tea bowls) and the small pots (tea implements) of the Ganzhou Kilns in Jiangxi. Imitation Longquan Kiln celadon products included ge-style incense burners (kuyao incense burners) (Charts 5 & 6), flower vases (Charts 7 & 8), of this, Seto Kiln pottery was widely circulated throughout Japan.
In the 13th and 14th Centuries, large quantities of Longquan Kiln celadon, Jingdezhen Kiln white porcelain as well as celadon, white porcelain and black glaze ceramics made at the Fujian Kilns were imported to Japan, of which the Longquan celadon was greatest in number. The high-quality powder blue celadon produced during the late Southern Song dynasty was especially treasured in Japan. From the late Muromachi Period to the Momoyama Period, it was referred to as “anvil celadon” because so many tea masters were so fond of it, and in Japan today numerous well-known pieces of Southern Song anvil celadon have been bequeathed to the world. Moreover, Longquan Kiln celadon produced during the Yuan dynasty and Early Ming dynasty is referred to as Tenryu Temple celadon because it was brought to Japan along the Tenryu Temple sea trade routes. The Seto Kiln frequently manufactured imitation Longquan Kiln celadon during the heyday of this school of pottery.
While Longquan celadon was the primary form of pottery from the latter half of the 14th century to the 15th century, other types of pottery were also transported from China to Japan, such as the white porcelain and the blue and white porcelain of the Jingdezhen Kiln and the white porcelain and the black glaze porcelain from Fujian. However, due to the influence of policies on maritime restrictions of the Ming dynasty, imports of Chinese ceramics to Japan were far less than what they had been in previous times. During the same period, the Ming Court conferred a title of rank upon the Ryukyu Islands (Okinawa) dynasty, and then a tremendous amount of the trade in Longquan Kiln celadon, Jingdezhen Kiln blue and white porcelain and Fujian ceramic pottery was re-exported through the Ryukyus to Japan, Southeast Asia and the Korean Peninsula. The Longquan celadon that the Seto Kilns continued to manufacture at this time was led by imitation Chinese ceramic pottery. However, from the active use of simple printed patterns and iron glaze (black glaze, brown glaze) and an increase in a unique sense of decoration and coloring, it is clear that Japanese pottery was increasingly deviating from the textures of Chinese celadon and white porcelain ceramics.
During the Japanese Warring States Period (approx. 1493-1573), the Seto Kilns focused more on producing imitation Chinese celadon bowls and small plates and other types of small pottery, many of which featured tiny stripes of thick yellow ash glaze.
In the 16th century, imports of Chinese ceramic pottery to Japan consisted primarily of blue and white porcelain from the Jingdezhen. The 16thcentury also marked a watershed for celadon with a sharp decrease in imports of the product. Longquan celadon imports came to a halt, Jingde celadon replacing it as the mainstream potter. From the 16th century to the first half of the 17th century, the celadon entering Japan was called “qiguan celadon”, and there is speculation that a portion of these imports were custom-ordered by Japan from China along with “guranfu (celadon)” and other items. Although a large amount of the “qiguan celadon” is thought to be Longquan wares, it is actually quite possible that most of these pieces are imitation Longquan wares made at the Jingdezhen.
Entering the 17th century, most Chinese pottery imported to Japan was blue and white porcelain from the Jingdezhen and blue and white porcelain and five-color porcelain from the Zhangzhou in Fujian. As previously mentioned, the small amount of remaining celadon was the imitation Longquan wares and Zhangshou celadon made at the Jingdezhen known as qiguan celadon.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the Arita Kilns in Kyushu started formal ceramic pottery production after acquiring pottery techniques via the Korean Peninsula, and production in Japan rivaled that of high-quality Chinese celadon. By the late Edo Period, all throughout Japan products imitating Chinese Ming dynasty Longquan celadon could be found. For information about celadon production in Japan since the 17th century, please refer to the detailed treatise by Mr. Suzuta in the catalogue.
Postscript
Genuine production of celadon in Japan began in the 17th century. Previously, from the 9th century to the end of the 16th century, using lead glaze pottery and original porcelain (grey ash glaze pottery) techniques from China, imitations were made of the shapes and patterns of Yue celadon, Longquan celadon and celadon made in Fujian. The Japanese techniques to make imitations of Chinese quality celadon were not of a high level, so there was a huge difference between the texture of the finished products and that of Chinese pottery. Moreover, individual changes were made to the shape with the addition of unique and innovative patterns. Consequently, a style of celadon imitation far different than that of its Chinese pottery counterpart was introduced to world.
Notes:
1. Two-handled wide-mouth celadon pot handed down from Horyu Temple (latter half of 6th century to early 7th century, produced in Fujian), also seen in contemporary celadon.
2. Japanese ceramic pottery is considered to have started with the beginning of Arita production of white porcelain and blue and white porcelain in the early 17th century.
References:
.Kikuo Inoue, Owari porcelain, New Science Society, 1992.
.Kikuo Inoue, Japanese tri-colored green glaze, Aichi Prefecture Ceramic Museum, 1998.
.Tatsuya Mori, "Influence of Late Ming Chinese Ceramics on Japanese Ceramics", The Beautiful World of Momoyama Ceramics, Aichi Prefecture Ceramic Museum, 2005, pp. 50-52.